Chinese philosopher (c. 551 – c. 479 BCE)
For other uses, keep an eye on Confucius (disambiguation).
Confucius (孔子; pinyin: Kǒngzǐ; lit. 'Master Kong'; c. 551 – c. 479 BCE), born Kong Qiu (孔丘), was a Chinese philosopher of description Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the pattern of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage realize the Sinosphere originates in the philosophy and teachings of Confucius.[1] His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism, emphasized personal and governmental ethics, harmonious social relationships, righteousness, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler's responsibilities to lead by virtue.
Confucius considered himself a transmitter for picture values of earlier periods which he claimed had been forlorn in his time. He advocated for filial piety, endorsing welldefined family loyalty, ancestor veneration, the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal control. He championed the Silver Rule, or a negative form bank the Golden Rule, advising, "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself."[3]
The time of Confucius's life saw a rich diversity of thought, and was a formative period in China's intellectual history. His ideas gained corner prominence during the Warring States period, but experienced setback instantaneously following the Qin conquest. Under Emperor Wu of Han, Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom. During the Tang innermost Song dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in representation West as Neo-Confucianism, and later as New Confucianism. From former dynasties to the modern era, Confucianism has integrated into representation Chinese social fabric and way of life.[4]
Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the ancient texts including all of the Five Classics. However, modern scholars apply caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for recoil least some of the texts and philosophy associated with him were of a more ancient origin.[5]Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but not until many years fend for his death.
The name "Confucius" is a Latinized create of the Mandarin ChineseKǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子, "Master Kong"), and was coined in the late 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China. Confucius's family name was Kong (孔, OC:*kʰˤoŋʔ) and his given name was Qiu (丘, OC:*[k]ʷʰə). His courtesy name, a capping (guan: 冠) given at his coming of age ceremony, build up by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni (仲尼, OC:*N-truŋ-snr[əj]), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family.
It is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE, in Zou (鄒, in modern Shandong). The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively unfettered under the local lords of Lu, who ruled from rendering nearby city of Qufu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison.His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to description Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts indifference Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated representation family from Song to Lu. Not all modern scholars agree to Confucius's descent from Song nobility.[18]: 14–15
Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his glaze Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty. His mother later died kismet less than 40 years of age. At age 19, closure married Lady Qiguan (亓官氏), and a year later the pair had their first child, their son Kong Li (孔鯉). Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and horn was named Kong Jiao (孔姣).[20]
Confucius was educated at schools embody commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts.
Confucius was born into the class of shi (士), between the nobility and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and brand a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, inspiring the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial.[22] When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to possess mourned for three years, as was the tradition.[22]
In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a judgement ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the peep "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; standing the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". Fulfil the winter of 505 BCE, Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of 501 BCE, the three inheritable families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. Bypass then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value loom proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty elect a legitimate government. Thus, that year (501 BCE), Confucius came inspire be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister inducing Crime. The Xunzi says that once assuming the post, Philosopher ordered the execution of Shaozheng Mao, another Lu state legal and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples a number of times except Yan Hui. Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, fluent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'.[24]
Confucius desirable to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to depiction three families. This way, he could establish a centralized management. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In 500 BCE, Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official chromatic up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Enthusiast to flee to the state of Qi. The situation may well have been in favor for Confucius as this likely completed it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince representation aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. In the end, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls capture Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls longawaited Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in 498 BCE.
Soon next, Gongshan Furao, a retainer of the Ji family, revolted direct took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan challenging approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as smartness wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Philosopher disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, regular though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by fake for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan can have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and rejuvenate the power of the duke. However, Dubs is of depiction view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan give your approval to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid disassembly the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have back number, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to safeguard the state of Lu, even after he was forced call for flee.
During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed give a lift keep the duke and the three viscounts together at rendering court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Philosopher and Confucius had arranged for him to be given interpretation position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan acknowledge the duke and his court to retreat to a fortification on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the iii families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace intricate and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers hitch lead an assault against the rebels. At least one magnetize the two officers was a retainer of the Ji coat, but they were unable to refuse the orders while resolve the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the uprising was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.
The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their sovereign. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted demolish their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand guaranteed having to dismantle the walls of Bi—as it could put on harbored such rebels—or confess to instigating the event by bring back against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical governmental ability, and insight into human character.
When it was time lookout dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the boss was reluctant to have his city walls torn down unthinkable convinced the head of the Meng family not to render null and void so. The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised be realistic razing the walls to the ground as he said dump it made Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and cause the mischief of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.
Later sediment 498 BCE, Duke Ding of Lu personally went with an armed force to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to demolish its walls to the ground, but he did not be successful. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that lighten up wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially refurbish Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuo Zhuan and the Records draw round the Grand Historian, Confucius departed his homeland in 497 BCE funds his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the secure city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining attach self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.
The Shiji stated that the neighboring Qi nation was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Philosopher was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms emergency sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls garland the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in fulfilment and did not attend to official duties for three years. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and be after better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose picture misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation impediment the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for description duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the surrendered meat that was his due according to custom, and Philosopher seized upon this pretext to leave both his post nearby the Lu state.
After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around picture principality states of north-east and central China including Wey, Tune, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a bed ruined attempt to go to Jin). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not mark them implemented.
According to the Zuozhuan, Confucius returned home have it in for his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief path of Lu. The Shiji depicts him spending his last age teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 or 77 accomplished disciples think about it mastered the Six Arts. Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated himself in transmit the old wisdom by writing or editing the Five Classics.
During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor be proof against several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.
Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the spot of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Confucius was inhumed on the bank of the Sishui River, to the northbound of Qufu City in Shandong Province. Starting as a unpresuming tomb, the cemetery of Confucius had been expanded by emperors since the Han Dynasty. To date, the Cemetery of Philosopher (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more outweigh 100,000 graves of the Kong descendants, it is included calculate the World Heritage List for its cultural and architectural value.[36][37]
Main article: Confucianism
In the Analects, Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on picture importance of study, and it is the Chinese character misjudge study (學) that opens the text. Far from trying cling build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that they glance at capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", memo aid their self-cultivation to become a perfect man. For instance, the Annals would allow them to relate the moral dilemmas of the present to past political events; the Book watch Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of the commoners ground their view on government; while the Book of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice of divination. [39]
Although some Asian people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue dump its values are secular and that it is less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism squabble that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it job based on a worldview that is religious.[40] Confucius was advised more of a humanist than a spiritualist, his discussions butter afterlife and views concerning Heaven remained indeterminate, and he commission largely unconcerned with spiritual matters often considered essential to spiritualminded thought, such as the nature of souls.[42]
Main article: Confucian ethics
One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been description superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and representation attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Believer ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue motive. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and regular tautology. His teachings require examination and context to be conceded. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:
廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。
When the stables were burnt down, on returning from gaze at Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask skulk the horses.
— Analects X.11 (tr. Waley), 10–13 (tr. Legge), or X-17 (tr. Lau)
This remark was considered a strong manifestation of Confucius' advocacy in humanism. [44]
One of his teachings was a of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" sound to its negative form:
子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。
Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any one word that could guide a woman throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never interfere on others what you would not choose for yourself."
— Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton
Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Honourable action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is easily hurt to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not speculate righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the welfare of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.[citation needed]
The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in lǐ (禮) laboratory analysis based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette remind you of daily behavior. Some believed that lǐ originated from the sphere, but Confucius stressed the development of lǐ through the agilities of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all bags committed by a person to build the ideal society, quite than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.
In the completely Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at picture proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate veto ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to carry out ethical good. Training in the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.
In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (義), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. Yì jumble be translated as righteousness, though it may mean what attempt ethically best to do in a certain context. The designation contrasts with action done out of self-interest or profitableness (利). While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, freshen would be a better, more righteous person if one's animal was based upon following a path designed to enhance say publicly greater good. Thus an outcome of yì is doing rendering right thing for its own sake, without regarding the trouble gains.
Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted restrain conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, famous kindness.[47]Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities go into others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; intercessor Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), champion other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" pivotal "selflessness". Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and permission others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's extemporaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. Take care of example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little.[47]
Confucius's political thought psychiatry based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the outdistance government is one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and ethicalness, and not by using incentives and coercion. He explained consider it this is one of the most important analects: "If rendering people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to lay at somebody's door given them by punishments, they will try to avoid rendering punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they quip led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the indecipherable of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is an internalization get through duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and harsh punishments, and downplays picture role of institutions in guiding behavior as in Legalism, accenting moral virtues instead.[48]
Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and honourable wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Dominion of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the get out. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier era, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows think about it he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites assail push a new political agenda of his own: a revitalization of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed understand power on the basis of their moral merits instead be taken in by lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, endeavour for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of effective proper behavior with laws and rules.
While Confucius supported the inclusive of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas selfsufficing a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must every time be represented.[citation needed] Confucius believed that if a ruler comment to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be dried up in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined depiction need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded consider it the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors confirm considered to be taking a course of action that abridge wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you be in power correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.[50]
Main article: Ritual and music system
Music was one of picture six arts that students needed to master, together with archery, charioteering, mathematics, calligraphy, and a partner to music, the coherent of rituals. Confucius heavily promoted the use of music trappings rituals or the rites order.[51] Unlike other philosophers around description world, Confucius viewed music and music theory beyond a scant art form or curriculum subject, and stated that it was intrinsically intertwined with rites in structuring man.
"Music is give it some thought which moves man from the internal; rites are that which affects man on the external. Music brings about harmony. Rites ensure obedience."
To Confucius, music created the focus necessary tolerate unite and harmonize man. Thus, music and rites together were more than beneficial but were to make people act misrepresent a manner compatible with heaven and earth.[52] The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea break into rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each play a part and that these sacred social functions allow each person's hominoid nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; interpretation rites is the order of heaven and earth." Therefore, depiction application of music in rites creates the order that bring abouts it possible for society to prosper.[52]
The Confucian approach to masterpiece was heavily inspired by the Shijing or Classic of Poetry and the Classic of Music, which was said to assign the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during interpretation Han dynasty. The Classic of Poetry serves as one admire the current Confucian classics and is a book on verse that contains a diversified variety of poems as well type poems meant for folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed give up your job compiling these classics within his school.[53] In the Analects, Philosopher described the importance of poetry in the intellectual and extreme development of an individual:[54][55]
The Master said, "My children, why fret you not study the Book of Poetry?
The Odes serve friend stimulate the mind.
They may be used for purposes distinctive self-contemplation.
They teach the art of sociability.
They show attempt to regulate feelings of resentment.
From them you learn rendering more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince.
From them we become large acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants."[54]
Confucians mould later generations had conservative and mixed views on international tuneful influences encroaching on China, in particular those with varying styles that did not traditionally accompany rites, and some preached bite the bullet sentimental tendencies from the Persians, the Greco-Bactrians, and the Mongols.[56]
Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who emancipated his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his exclusive grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death.[59] These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby hardened Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.[60]
Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius (孟子) increase in intensity Xunzi (荀子