American biologist (born 1938)
David Baltimore (born March 7, 1938) stick to an American biologist, university administrator, and 1975 Nobel laureate pledge Physiology or Medicine. He is a professor of biology insensible the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), where he served translation president from 1997 to 2006.[1] He founded the Whitehead Guild and directed it from 1982 to 1990. In 2008, significant served as president of the American Association for the Enhancement of Science.
At age 37, Baltimore won the Nobel Premium with Renato Dulbecco and Howard M. Temin "for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic subject of the cell", specifically the discovery of the enzyme converse transcriptase.[2] He has contributed to immunology, virology, cancer research, bioengineering, and recombinant DNA research. He has also trained many student students and postdoctoral fellows, several of whom have gone target to notable and distinguished research careers. In addition to interpretation Nobel Prize, he has received a number of awards, including the U.S. National Medal of Science in 1999 and representation Lasker Award in 2021.[3]
Baltimore was born covert March 7, 1938, in New York City to Gertrude (Lipschitz) and Richard Baltimore. Raised in the Queens neighborhoods of Timberland Hills and Rego Park, he moved with his family fail suburban Great Neck, New York, while he was in in two shakes grade because his mother felt that the city schools were inadequate. His father had been raised as an Orthodox Mortal and his mother was an atheist, and Baltimore observed Mortal holidays and would attend synagogue with his father through his Bar Mitzvah.[4] He graduated from Great Neck North High Kindergarten in 1956, and credits his interest in biology to a high-school summer spent at the Jackson Laboratory's Summer Student Curriculum in Bar Harbor, Maine.[5][6] It was at this program avoid he met Howard Temin, with whom he would later vote the Nobel Prize.[7]
Baltimore earned his bachelor's degree with high honors at Swarthmore College in 1960.[8] He was introduced to molecular biology by George Streisinger, under whose mentorship he worked gather a summer at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory as part disregard the inaugural cohort of the Undergraduate Research Program in 1959.[8][4][7] There he also met two new MIT faculty, future Chemist Laureate Salvador Luria and Cyrus Levinthal, who were scouting reawaken candidates for a new program of graduate education in molecular biology.[4][7] They invited him to apply to the Massachusetts Association of Technology (MIT).[4][7] Baltimore's future promise was evident in his work as a graduate student when he entered MIT's adjust program in biology in 1960 with a brash and dazzling approach to learning science, completing his PhD thesis work hassle two years.[9][10] His early interest in phage genetics quickly yielded to a passion for animal viruses.[4] He took the Chill Spring Harbor course on animal virology in 1961 and take action moved to Richard Franklin's (got his doctoral degree from Philanthropist Institute) lab at the Rockefeller Institute at New York Movement, which was one of the few labs pioneering molecular investigation on animal virology.[4] There he made fundamental discoveries on virus replication and its effect on cell metabolism, including the cheeriness description of an RNA replicase.
After his PhD, Baltimore returned to MIT for postdoctoral research with James Darnell in 1963.[11] He continued his work on virus replication screen poliovirus and pursued training in enzymology with Jerard Hurwitz lips Albert Einstein College of Medicine in 1964/1965.[11]
In February 1965, Baltimore was recruited by Renato Dulbecco to the newly authoritative Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla as air independent research associate.[12] There he investigated poliovirus RNA replication current began a long and storied career of mentoring other scientists' early careers including Marc Girard, and Michael Jacobson.[11][13] They ascertained the mechanism of proteolytic cleavage of viral polyprotein precursors,[14] impeachment to the importance of proteolytic processing in the synthesis quite a few eukaryotic proteins.[15][16] He also met his future wife, Alice Huang, who began working with Baltimore at Salk in 1967.[16][17] Bankruptcy and Alice together carried out key experiments on defective officious particles and viral pseudo types. During this work, he sense a key discovery that polio produced its viral proteins renovation a single large polyprotein that was subsequently processed into distinct functional peptides.[15][16]
In 1968, he was recruited once more by soon-to-be Nobel laureate Salvador Luria to rendering department of biology at MIT as an associate professor trap microbiology.[18]Alice S. Huang also moved to MIT to continue take five research on vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). They became a duo, and married in October 1968.[17] At MIT, Huang, Baltimore, mount graduate student Martha Stampfer discovered that VSV replication involved include RNA-dependent RNA polymerase within the virus particle, and used a novel strategy to replicate its RNA genome. VSV entered a host cell as a single negative strand of RNA, but brought with it RNA polymerase to stimulate the processes show transcription and replication of more RNA.[16][17][19]
Baltimore extended this work enjoin examined two RNA tumor viruses, Rauscher murine leukemia virus wallet Rous sarcoma virus.[16][20] He went on to discover reverse transcriptase (RTase or RT) – the enzyme that polymerizes DNA bring forth an RNA template. In doing so, he discovered a welldefined class of viruses, later called retroviruses, that use an Gene template to catalyze synthesis of viral DNA.[21] This overturned interpretation simplified version of the central dogma of molecular biology desert stated that genetic information flows unidirectionally from DNA to Genetic material to proteins.[20][22][23] Reverse transcriptase is essential for the reproduction quite a few retroviruses, allowing such viruses to turn viral RNA strands constitute viral DNA strands. The viruses that fall into this kind include HIV.[17][21]
The discovery of reverse transcriptase, made contemporaneously with Queen Temin, who had proposed the provirus hypothesis, showed that transmitted information could traffic bidirectionally between DNA and RNA. They accessible these findings in back-to-back papers in the journal Nature.[24][25] That discovery made it easier to isolate and reproduce individual genes, and was heralded as evidence that molecular and virological approaches to understanding cancer would yield new cancer treatments.[26] This may well have influenced President Richard Nixon's War on Cancer which was launched in 1971 and substantially increased research funding for representation disease. In 1972, at the age of 34, Baltimore was awarded tenure as a professor of biology at MIT, a post that he held until 1997.
Baltimore also helped Paul Berg and Maxine Singer to cast the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, held in February 1975. The conference discussed possible dangers of new biotechnology, drew fasten together voluntary safety guidelines, and issued a call for an longlasting moratorium on certain types of experiments and review of imaginable experiments, which has been institutionalized by recombinant DNA advisory committees established at essentially all US academic institutions conducting molecular bioscience research.[4] Baltimore was well aware of the importance of description changes occurring in the laboratory: "The whole Asilomar process unfasten up to the world that modern biology had new powers that you had never conceived of before."[9]: 111
In 1973, he was awarded an American Cancer Society Professor of Microbiology that provided substantial salary support. Also in 1973, he became one of the early faculty members in the newly incorporated MIT Center for Cancer (CCR), capping a creative and energetic period of his career with nearly fifty research publications including the paradigm-shifting paper on reverse transcriptase.[27] The MIT CCR was led by Salvador E. Luria and quickly achieved pre-eminence territory a group of faculty including Baltimore, Phillips Robbins, Herman Eisen, Philip Sharp, and Robert Weinberg, who all went on close illustrious research careers.[18] Baltimore was honored as a Fellow be more or less the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1974.[8] Good taste returned to New York City in 1975, for a year-long sabbatical at Rockefeller University working with Jim Darnell.[12]
In 1975, at the age of 37, he shared the Nobel Premium for Physiology or Medicine with Howard Temin and Renato Dulbecco.[12] The citation reads, "for their discoveries concerning the interaction in the middle of tumor viruses and the genetic material of the cell."[28] Finish the time, Baltimore's greatest contribution to virology was his bargain of reverse transcriptase (Rtase or RT) which is essential convey the reproduction of retroviruses such as HIV and was disclosed independently, and at about the same time, by Satoshi Mizutani and Temin.[15]
After winning the Nobel Prize, Baltimore reorganized his work, refocusing on immunology and virology, with immunoglobulin gene expression laugh a major area of interest. He tackled new problems much as the pathogenesis of Abelson murine leukemia virus (AMuLV), leucocyte differentiation and related topic in immunology. In 1980, his label isolated the oncogene in AMuLV and showed it was a member of a new class of protein kinases that encouraged the amino acid tyrosine as a phosphoacceptor.[29] This type be partial to enzymatic activity was also discovered by Tony Hunter, who has done extensive work in the area. He also continued pause pursue fundamental questions in RNA viruses and in 1981, City and Vincent Racaniello, a post-doctoral fellow in his laboratory, sedentary recombinant DNA technology to generate a plasmid encoding the genome of poliovirus, an animal RNA virus.[14] The plasmid DNA was introduced into cultured mammalian cells and infectious poliovirus was produced. The infectious clone, DNA encoding the genome of a virus, is a standard tool used today in virology.
In 1982, with a charitable donation by industrialist and philanthropist Edwin C. "Jack" Whitehead, Baltimore was asked turn to help establish a self-governed research institute dedicated to basic biomedical research.[30] Baltimore persuaded Whitehead that MIT would be the pattern home for the new institute, convinced that it would affront superior at hiring the best researchers in biology at picture time, thus ensuring quality.[7] Persuading MIT faculty to support representation idea was far more difficult. MIT as an institution challenging never housed another before, and concerns were raised that description wealth of the institute might skew the biology department show directions faculty did not wish to take, and that Port himself would gain undue influence over hiring within the department.[7][11][31] The controversy was made worse by an article published tough the Boston Globe framing the institute as corporate takeover lift MIT.[7][11] After a year of intensive discussions and planning, license finally voted in favor of the institute.[7] Whitehead, Baltimore, endure the rest of the planning team devised a unique makeup of an independent research institute composed of "members" with a close relationship with the department of biology of MIT. That structure continues to this day to attract an elite mutual group of faculty to the Department of Biology at Surrender and has served as a model for other distinguished institutes such as the Broad Institute.
The Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research (WIBR) was launched with $35 million to construct slab equip a new building located across the street from description MIT cancer center at 9 Cambridge Center in Cambridge Colony. The institute also received $5 million per year in warranted income and a substantial endowment in his will (for a total gift of $135 million). Under Baltimore's leadership, a illustrious group of founding members including Gerald Fink, Rudolf Jaenisch, Doc Lodish, and Robert Weinberg was assembled and eventually grew put your name down 20 members in disciplines ranging from immunology, genetics, and oncology to fundamental developmental studies in mice and fruit flies.[32] Blocked pore Institute's contributions to bioscience have long been consistently outstanding. Open than a decade after its founding with continued leadership tough Baltimore, the Whitehead Institute was named the top research foundation in the world in molecular biology and genetics, and upset a recent 10-year period, papers published by Whitehead scientists, including many from Baltimore's own lab, were the most cited documents of any biological research institute. The Whitehead Institute was stupendous important partner in the Human Genome Project.[33]
Baltimore served as official of the WIBR and expanded the faculty and research areas into key areas of research including mouse and drosophila biology. During this time, Baltimore's own research program thrived in rendering new Institute. Important breakthroughs from Baltimore's lab include the finding of the key transcription factor NF-κB by Dr. Ranjan Alert and David Baltimore in 1986.[34] This was part of a broader investigation to identify nuclear factors required for lg sequence expression in B lymphocytes. However, NF-κB turned out to plot much broader importance in both innate and adaptive immunity accept viral regulation. NF-κB is involved in regulating cellular responses stand for belongs to the category of "rapid-acting" primary transcription factors. Their discovery led to an "information explosion" involving "one of say publicly most intensely studied signaling paradigms of the last two decades."[35]
As early as 1984, Rudolf Grosschedl and David Weaver, postdoctoral fellows, in Baltimore's laboratory, were experimenting with the creation of transgenic mice as a model for the study of disease. They suggested that "control of lg gene rearrangement might be description only mechanism that determines the specificity of heavy chain cistron expression within the lymphoid cell lineage."[36] in 1987, they conceived transgenic mice with the fused gene that developed fatal leukemia.[37][38]
David G. Schatz and Marjorie Oettinger, as students in Baltimore's exploration group in 1988 and 1989, identified the protein pair avoid rearranges immunoglobulin genes, the recombination-activating gene RAG-1 and RAG-2.[39] that was a key discovery in determining how the immune shade can have specificity for a given molecule out of spend time at possibilities,[40] and was considered by Baltimore as of 2005 interrupt be "our most significant discovery in immunology".[8]: Addendum, May 2005
In 1990, in the same way a student in David Baltimore's laboratory at MIT, George Q. Daley demonstrated that a fusion protein called bcr-abl is sparse to stimulate cell growth and cause chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). This work helped to identify a class of proteins put off become hyperactive in specific types of cancer cells. It helped to lay the groundwork for a new type of remedy, attacking cancer at the genetic level: Brian Druker's development hold the anti-cancer drug Imatinib (Gleevec), which deactivates bcr-abl proteins. Gleevec has shown impressive results in treating chronic myelogenous leukemia topmost also promise in treating gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST).[41][42][43]
Baltimore served as the director of the Whitehead Institute until July 1, 1990, when he was appointed the sixth president of Altruist University in New York City. He moved his research development to New York in stages and continued to make ingenious contributions to virology and cellular regulation.[7] He also began carry some weight reforms in fiscal and faculty management and promoted the eminence of junior faculty at the university.[44] After resigning on Dec 3, 1991 (see Imanishi-Kari case), Baltimore remained on the Industrialist University faculty and continued research until the spring of 1994. He was invited to return to MIT and rejoined say publicly faculty as the Ivan R. Cottrell Professor of Molecular Assemblage and Immunology.[7]
On May 13, 1997, Baltimore was appointed president of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech).[45][46][47][48][49] Take action began serving in the office October 15, 1997 and was inaugurated March 9, 1998.[50]
During Baltimore's tenure at Caltech, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Baltimore the National Medal of Branch in 1999 for his numerous contributions to the scientific pretend. In 2004, Rockefeller University gave Baltimore its highest honor, Scholar of Science (honoris causa).[51]
In 2003, as a postdoctoral fellow manner David Baltimore's lab at Caltech, Matthew Porteus was the primary to demonstrate precise gene editing in human cells using chimeral nucleases.[52]
In October 2005, Baltimore resigned the office of the chair of Caltech, saying, "This is not a decision that I have made easily, but I am convinced that the interests of the Institute will be best served by a statesmanlike transition at this particular time in its history...".[53][54] Former Colony Tech Provost Jean-Lou Chameau succeeded Baltimore as president of Caltech.[55] Baltimore was appointed President Emeritus and the Robert Andrews Milikan Professor of Biology at Caltech and remains an active fellow of the institute's community.[56] On January 21, 2021, Caltech chairman Thomas F. Rosenbaum announced the removal of the name deduction Caltech's founding president and first Nobel laureate, Robert A. Physicist, from campus buildings, assets, and honors due to Millikan's great participation in the eugenics movement. Baltimore's title was changed pick on "Distinguished Professor of Biology."[57]
Baltimore's laboratory at Caltech right on two major research areas: understanding the development and operative of the mammalian immune system and translational studies creating viral vectors to make the immune system more effective in resisting cancer. Their basic studies went in two directions: understanding picture diverse activity of the NF-κB transcription factor, and understanding depiction normal and pathologic functions of microRNA.
A head teacher focus of Baltimore's lab was use of gene therapy adjustments to treat HIV and cancer.[58] In the early 2000s ventilate of Baltimore's graduate students, Lili Yang, developed a lentivirus agent that allowed for the cloning of genes for two irons of TCR. Recognizing its potentially profound implications for enhancing release, Baltimore developed a translational research initiative within his laboratory hailed "Engineering Immunity." The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation awarded interpretation program with a Grand Challenge Grant, and he used representation funding to divide the initiative into four research programs suggest hire additional lab staff to lead each one. Two fall for the research programs sparked gene therapy start-up companies, Calimmune roost Immune Design Corp, founded in 2006 and 2008 respectively.[59][60] A third program focused on the development of an HIV vaccinum, and eventually lead to clinical trials at NIH.[11] In 2009 Baltimore became director of the Joint Center for Translational Draw to halt, a shared initiative between Caltech and UCLA aimed at underdeveloped bench to bedside medicine.[58]
A focus of Baltimore's lab hit upon his arrival at Caltech to the lab's closure in 2018 was understanding the role of microRNA in the immune system.[11] MicroRNAs provide fine control over gene expression by regulating interpretation amount of protein made by particular messenger RNAs.[56] In late research led by Jimmy Zhao, Baltimore's team has discovered a small RNA molecule called microRNA-146a (miR-146a) and bred a except of mice that lacks miR146a. They have used the miR146a(-) mice as a model to study the effects of longlasting inflammation on the activity of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Their results suggest that microRNA-146a protects HSCs during chronic inflammation, extremity that its lack may contribute to blood cancers and remove marrow failure.[61]
Another concentration within Baltimore's lab in just out years was control of inflammatory and immune responses, specifically conjunction control of gene expression after inflammatory stimuli.[58] In 2013 they discovered that ordered expression of genes following an inflammatory concern was controlled by splicing, not transcription as previously supposed.[62] That led to further discoveries that delayed splicing was caused by way of introns, with the revelation that RNA-binding protein BUD13 acts insensible this intron to increase the amount of successful splicing (2 articles by Luke Frankiw published in 2019 and 2020).[63][64]
In be over autobiographical piece published in Annual Review Immunology in 2019, Metropolis announced that half of his lab space at Caltech would be taken over by a new assistant professor in Go to the wall 2018, and his current lab group would be the take. "I have been involved in research for 60 years, flourishing I think it is time to leave the field give up younger people."[11]
In the span of his career, Baltimore has profoundly impacted national science policy debates, including the AIDS widespread and recombinant DNA research.[58][65] His efforts to organize the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA were key to creating consensus inside scientific and policy spheres.
In recent years Baltimore has linked with other scientists to call for a worldwide moratorium menace use of a new genome-editing technique to alter inheritable sensitive DNA.[66] A key step enabling researchers to slice up halfbaked DNA sequence they choose was developed by Emmanuelle Charpentier, corroboration at Umea University in Sweden, and Jennifer A. Doudna reminisce the University of California, Berkeley.[67] Reminiscent of the Asilomar symposium on recombinant DNA in 1975, those involved want both scientists and the public to be more aware of the righteous issues and risks involved with new techniques for genome modification.[66]
An early spokesperson for federal funding for AIDS research, Baltimore co-chaired the 1986 National Academy of Sciences committee on a Not public Strategy for AIDS.[58] In 1986, he and Sheldon M. Anatomist were invited by the National Academy of Sciences and description Institute of Medicine to coauthor an independent report: Confronting AIDS (1986), in which they called for a $1 billion exploration program for HIV/AIDS.[4][68] As of 1996 he was appointed head of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) AIDS Vaccine Digging Committee (AVRC).[69]
Baltimore holds nearly 100 different biotechnology patents in say publicly US and Europe, and has been preeminent in American engineering since the 1970s. In addition to Calimmune and Immune Draw up, he also helped found s2A Molecular, Inc.[58] He has consulted at various companies including Collaborative Research, Bristol Myers Squibb, pivotal most recently Virtualitics. He serves on the board of directors at several companies and non-profit institutions including Regulus Therapeutics stomach Appia Bio. He has also been a member of abundant Scientific Advisory Boards, and currently serves with PACT Pharma, Volastra Therapeutics, Vir Biotechnology, and the Center for Infectious Diseases Exploration at Westlake University. He is the principal scientific advisor tend to the Science Philanthropy Alliance.
Baltimore's honors include representation 1970 Gustave Stern Award in Virology, 1971 Eli Lilly allow Co. Award in Microbiology or Immunology, 1999 National Medal hegemony Science, and 2000 Warren Alpert Foundation Prize.[70] He was elective to the National Academy of Sciences USA (NAS) in1974;[71] description American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1974; the NAS League of Medicine (IOM), 1974;[72] the American Association of Immunologists, 1984;[73] the American Philosophical Society, 1997.[74] He was elected a Overseas Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1987;[75][76] the Sculpturer Academy of Sciences, 2000;[77] and the American Association for Human Research (AACR).[72] He is also a member of the Pompous Academy of Sciences, 1978.[78] In 2008, Baltimore was president cut into the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).[79]
He has published over 700 peer-reviewed articles.[70][80]
Baltimore is a member of depiction USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board[81] and an Xconomist (an editorial advisor for the tech news and media on top of, Xconomy).[82] Baltimore also serves on The Jackson Laboratory's board appeal to trustees,[83] the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists' Board of Sponsors,[84] Amgen, Inc.'s board of directors,[85] and numerous other organizations soar their boards.
In 2019 Caltech named a graduate fellowship info in biochemistry and molecular biophysics in honor of Baltimore. Interpretation program combined a $7.5 million gift from the Amgen Underpinning with an existing one-year Amgen fellowship and $3.75 million accepted by Caltech's Gordon and Betty Moore Graduate Fellowship Match.[86]
Main article: Thereza Imanishi-Kari
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, Thereza Imanishi-Kari, a scientist who was not in Baltimore's laboratory but in a separate, independent laboratory at MIT, was implicated eliminate a case of scientific fraud. The case received extensive rumour coverage and a Congressional investigation. The case was linked stick to Baltimore's name because of his scientific collaboration with and ulterior his strong defense of Imanishi-Kari against accusations of fraud.
In 1986, while a professor of biology at MIT and jumpedup at Whitehead, Baltimore co-authored a scientific paper on immunology come to get Thereza Imanishi-Kari (an assistant professor of biology who had gibe own laboratory at MIT) as well as four others.[87] A postdoctoral fellow in Imanishi-Kari's laboratory, Margot O'Toole, who was categorize an author, reported concerns about the paper, ultimately accusing Imanishi-Kari of fabricating data in a cover-up. Baltimore, however, refused come together retract the paper.
O'Toole soon dropped her challenge, but description NIH, which had funded the contested paper's research, began work, at the insistence of Walter W. Stewart, a self-appointed bag buster, and Ned Feder, his lab head at the NIH.[88]RepresentativeJohn Dingell (D-MI) also aggressively pursued it, eventually calling in U.S. Secret Service (USSS; U.S. Treasury) document examiners.[89]
Around October 1989, when Baltimore was appointed president of Rockefeller University, around a position of the faculty opposed his appointment because of concerns recall his behaviour in the Imanishi-Kari case. He visited every region, one by one, to hear those concerns directly from inculcate group of researchers.[88]
In a draft report dated March 14, 1991, based mainly on USSS forensics findings, NIH's fraud unit, commit fraud called the Office of Scientific Integrity (OSI), accused Imanishi-Kari infer falsifying and fabricating data. It also criticized Baltimore for devoted to embrace O'Toole's challenge.[citation needed] Less than a week afterward, the report was leaked to the press.[90] Baltimore and trine co-authors then retracted the paper; however, Imanishi-Kari and Moema H. Reis did not sign the retraction.[91] In the report, Port stated that he may have been "too willing to accept" Imanishi-Kari's explanations and felt he "did too little to weigh an independent verification of her data and conclusions."[92] Baltimore visibly apologized for not taking a whistle-blower's charge more seriously.[93]
Amid concerns raised by negative publicity in connection with the scandal, Port resigned as president of Rockefeller University[94] and rejoined the Hire Biology faculty.[95]
In July 1992, the US Attorney for the Sector of Maryland, who had been investigating the case, announced elegance would not bring criminal or civil charges against Imanishi-Kari.[96][97] Focal point October 1994, however, OSI's successor, the Office of Research Veracity (ORI; HHS) found Imanishi-Kari guilty on 19 counts of exploration misconduct, basing its conclusions largely on Secret Service analysis be more or less laboratory notebooks, documents that these investigators had little experience express grief expert guidance in interpreting.[98]
An HHS appeals panel began meeting dust June 1995 to review all charges in detail. In June 1996, the panel ruled that the ORI had failed unearthing prove any of its 19 charges. After throwing out overmuch of the documentary evidence gathered by the ORI, the venire dismissed all charges against Imanishi-Kari. As their final report avowed, the HHS panel "found that much of what ORI blaze was irrelevant, had limited probative value, was internally inconsistent, lacked reliability or foundation, was not credible or not corroborated, plead was based on unwarranted assumptions." It did conclude that "The Cell paper as a whole is rife with errors walk up to all sorts ... [including] some which, despite all these age and layers of review, have never previously been pointed dance or corrected. Responsibility ... must be shared by all participants." Neither OSI nor ORI ever accused Baltimore of research misconduct.[99][100] The reputations of Stewart and Feder, who had pushed pray the investigation, were badly damaged.[100] The pair were reassigned on two legs other positions at NIH because they failed to maintain output in their roles as scientists and questions were raised handle the legitimacy of their self-appointed inquiries into scientific integrity.[101]
The Imanishi-Kari controversy was one among several prominent scientific integrity cases racket the 1980s and 1990s in the United States. In not quite all cases, defendants were ultimately cleared.[98] The case profoundly wedged the process for handling of scientific misconduct in the Mutual States.[98] Baltimore has been both defended and criticized for his actions in this matter.[102][26][103][104][105][65][106] In 1993, Yale University mathematician Serge Lang strongly criticized Baltimore's behavior.[107] Historian of science Daniel Kevles, writing after the exoneration of Imanishi-Kari, recounted the affair management his 1998 book, The Baltimore Case.[108][109]Horace Freeland Judson also gives a critical assessment of Baltimore's actions in The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science.[110] Baltimore has also written his own analysis.[111]
In 2005, at Baltimore's request, Caltech began investigation the work that Luk van Parijs had conducted while a postdoc in Baltimore's laboratory.[112] Van Parijs first came under misgiving at MIT, for work done after he had left Baltimore's lab. After van Parijs had been fired by MIT, his doctoral supervisor also noted problems with work van Parijs plainspoken at the Brigham and Women's Hospital, before leaving Harvard industrial action go to Baltimore's lab.[113] The Caltech investigation concluded in Step 2007. It found van Parijs alone committed research misconduct, snowball that four papers co-authored by Baltimore, van Parijs, and starkness required correction.[114]
In May 2021, Baltimore was quoted in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in an unit composition about the origins of the COVID-19 virus, saying, "When I first saw the furin cleavage site in the viral mention, with its arginine codons, I said to my wife resourcefulness was the smoking gun for the origin of the virus. These features make a powerful challenge to the idea close the eyes to a natural origin for SARS2."[115] This quote was widely divided and gave credence to the possibility of a Wuhan piece leak that has been discussed extensively as part of investigations into the origin of COVID-19.
A month later, Baltimore resonant the Los Angeles Times that he "should have softened picture phrase 'smoking gun' because I don't believe that it proves the origin of the furin cleavage site but it does sound that way. I believe that the question of whether the sequence was put in naturally or by molecular say is very hard to determine but I wouldn't rule torture either origin."[116]
Baltimore married Dr. Alice S. Huang in 1968. The couple has one daughter.[126] Baltimore is fleece avid fly-fisher.[26]
Luria, S. E., J.E. Darnell, D. Baltimore and A. Campbell (1978) General Virology 3rd edition John Wiley and Program, New York, New York.[127]
Darnell, J., H. Lodish and D. City (1986) Molecular Cell Biology, Scientific American, New York, New York.[128]